Adjetivos seguidos de INFINITIVO con TO NOMBRES
CONTABLES E INCONTABLES: Las categorias de singular y plural se aplican a
todo aquello que se puede contar; son estos los que llamamos nombres contables, materiales como: girls, houses, flowers, o abstractos como: days, hours, mistakes, ideas. Pero hay otra serie de
nombres que no se pueden encuadrar dentro de unos límites numéricos - los
llamamos incontables, ya sea a su vez
materiales, como: silver, butter, cheese,
o abstractos como: music, traffic,
success. Asi como los nombres contables se pueden contar tomados en la
medida de uno, dos tres etc., los incontables se pueden cuantificar con las
expresiones: much, little, some, a great deal of, plenty of ... etc. Podemos utilizar “a
lot of” delante de nombres contables e incontables, pero la expresión “a
large number of” sólo se utiliza ante contables. Television
companies receive a large number of letters every day. “A
great deal of” sólo se utiliza con incontables: The psycologist had spent a great deal of time studying the problem. Para la afirmativa se
prefieren estas expresiones a “much” o “many”, dejándoles a éstos el
uso exclusivo de las interrogativas y negativas, o también si son “sujeto”
o “parte del sujeto” nunca
“complemento”. Television
companies don’t receive many letters. The
psycologist hadn’t spent much time on the problem Además de la
expresiones ya vistas hay otras formas de referirnos a in contables como son: A
piece of:
news, advice, furniture ... A bit
of:
information A
stroke of:
luck (golpe de suerte) A
matter of:
common sense (un poco de sentido común) Asi mirada la distinción
entre nombres contables e incontables
no ofrece dificultad; hay que tener en cuenta, sin
embargo, que hay un gran número de palabras que pueden tomarse, en distintos
contextos, como contables o también como incontables:
contable Incontable Ice:
helado ;
hielo Iron:
plancha ;
acero Paper:
periódico ;
papel Glass vaso
; cristal Wood: bosque
; madera Otra distinción a tener
en cuenta es la que se refiere al animal como contable, y a su carne como
incontable: Ox (buey), carne: beef Calf (ternera) carne: veal Sheep (oveja) carne: mutton Pig or swine (cerdo) carne: pork Desde el punto de vista
meramente lógico, podríamos deducir que, puesto que los nombres incontables
denotan lo que no podemos contar, las categorías de singular y plural no les
son aplicables; sin embargo hay muchos nombres incontables que son plurales por
su forma: sweets
(caramelos)
rickets (el raquitismo) weeds (malas
hierbas)
hysterics (la histeria) goods
(mercancias)
measles (el sarampión) ashes
(cenizas) Otro grupo de
nombres son los terminados en -ics,
que denotan materias:
mathematics - matemáticas politics
- política statistics
- estadística Tanto este grupo
de nombres como el anterior pueden ir seguidos de un verbo en singular o en
plural: Measles
is/are very infectious Politics
don´t/doesn’t interest me. Back to the Top
All + Clause (Oración Subordinada)
Any + Comparativo
Articulo
Caracteristicas de los Verbos Defectivos
Colocaciones de Both y All
Compuestos de SOME/ANY/NO/EVERY
Conjunciones ALTHOUGH/THOUGH
Conjunciones IN CASE/UNLESS
Construcción ACUSATIVA o INFINITIVA INGLESA
Cuadro de PRONOMBRES
Diferencias entre BEEN TO/GONE TO
Diferencias entre SAY/TELL/SPEAK/TALK
Diferencias en SEEM/LOOK
ESTILO IDIRECTO (Reported Speech)
Estructuras
* It's (about) time + Simple Past
* It's no good + Gerundio (-ING)
Exclamaciones
Expresar DESEOS o LAMENTOS
False Friends
Formas de expresar la edad de una persona
FORMULAS PARA COMPOSICIONES (Frases hechas)
Género en PERSONAS, ANIMALES y COSAS en Inglés
GERUNDIO
GLOSARIO DE COU
GRAMÁTICA ESPAÑOLA
* Artículo determinado e indeterminado español
* Adjetivo español y sus clases
* Pronombres españoles y Clases de Pronombres
* Conjugación Española (Resumida)
* Correspondencia de tiempos españoles e ingleses
* Tabla de tiempos ingleses (Todos los tiempos activos y pasivos)
Hacer Comparaciones
Impersonal "YOU"
INFINITIVO de Propósito o Finalidad
Locuciones Verbales: WOULD RATHER/SOONER/HAD BETTER
Nombres COMPUESTOS (Lista y significado)
Nombres Contables e Incontables
Some y any son adjetivos o pronombres indefinidos que se emplean con
sustantivos incontables en singular y con sustantivos plurales contables, o
sustituyendo a estos mismos sustantivos.
Some: Con nombres incontables
en singular equivale al partitivo francés y tiene el significado de un poco
(de), algo (de), o puede prescindirse de su traducción en español. Con los
nombres contables en plural significa algunos/as:
There
is some water in the jug.
I have some English books at home.
Como pronombre sustituye
a nombres incontables en singular y a contables en plural a los que se ha
mencionado previamente. Significa: un poco, algo, algunos/as:
I like
some milk. I feel like drinking some now.
You need many pins for that. I can lend you some if you want.
Por regla general el uso
de some se limita a oraciones
afirmativas. En las oraciones interrogativas y negativas, detrás de if, hardly, barely, scarcely se emplea any con los mismos significados de some:
Is
there any water in the glass?
Are there any books on the table?
I haven’t any money left.
There is hardly any sugar.
There are scarcely any papers on the floor.
If you want any help, let me know.
Sólo si la pregunta
implica una invitación u ofrecimiento, o si se espera una respuesta afirmativa,
se puede emplear some en las
oraciones interrogativas:
Would
you like some more tea?
Did he buy some new books?
Se emplea:
1.
En
ocasiones con los nombres contables tiene el valor de plural del artículo
indeterminado a:
Come with me and I’ll show you some English books I bought.
I have bought some too.
There is some milk in that glass; I’ll have some.
2.
Cuando
ofrecemos algo, para dar a este ofreciemiento más fuerza:
Would you like some tea?
3.
En
las preguntas cuando esperamos que la respuesta sea afirmativa:
He has some tea already, hasn’t he?
4.
Para
expresar indiferencia al referirnos a una persona, o para indicar irritación:
Some
man came and told me the most stupid story.
Some stupid boy must have broken this lamp.
Any: Acompaña o sustituye también a nombres
incontables en singular y a contables en plural:
Se emplea:
1.
Sustituyendo
a some en las oraciones
interrogativas:
Is
there any wine in the bottle?
Have you got nay books here?
2.
En
las oraciones negativas y en las que tienen valor negativo a causa de las
expresiones: hardly, barely, scarcely,
estas expresiones tienen matiz negativo:
There isn’t any bread at home.
He has hardly any money.
You haven’t any paper.
3.
En
las oraciones condicionales detrás de if
especialmente si creemos que la condición no se va a cumplir:
If I see any of your friends I’ll tell them to meet you at the cinema.
4.
En
oraciones que expresan duda:
I doubt whether they will have any gin at home.
5.
En
oraciones afirmativas con valor distinto de some.
Significa cualquiera no importa cuál:
Don’t
worry; any book will do.
NO: Se emplea en oraciones
afirmativas para expresar negación. Su valor es similar al de any,
como adjetivo, con el verbo en forma negativa:
I
haven’t any money
= I have no maney.
There aren’t any stamps =
There are no stamps.
El artículo determinado
en inglés se pone cuando se habla de un sustantivo en concreto, determinado, no
en sentido general.
The boy next door to us is full of mischief
The book that you gave me is very interesting
En ambos ejemplos hay
algo que define a la persona o cosa a que nos referimos. En el primer caso es next
door to us y en el segundo es that
you gave me. Esta definición del obejto o la persona de quién hablamos nos
la puede dar la pregunta: WHAT? o la
pregunta WHICH?, y ésto ocurre en
singular y plural:
The animals I saw were
beautiful. What animals? Those I saw
(not all animals).
The dogs in your farm don’t like meat. Which dogs? The ones you have in your farm
La determinación se
puede expresar por medio de una oración
de ralativo (The book that you gave
me) o por un complemento con preposición (The dogs in your farm)
The carpet
of the dining-room; The house near
the church.
Si
hablamos de algo en sentido general utilizamos el artículo indeterminado si la
persona o cosa de que hablamos es singular y nada si es plural:
A play by Shakespeare is
something interesting to be seen.
Films are good entertainment.
Usos del Artículo
Determinado:
1.
-
Cuando nos referimos a algo de lo que sólo existe un ejemplar:
The
sky, the earth, the moon.
2.
-
Cuando empleamos el superlativo relativo, pero no el absoluto:
This
is the most interesting poem I have read.
pero es: It is most interesting.
3.
- Con
los nombres de mares, rios y oceanos:
the
Thames, the Atlantic, the Pacific, the Mediterranean etc.
4.
- Con
los nombres de cordilleras y archipiélagos, pero no con los nombres de mantañas
y de una sóla isla:
The
Canary Islands, the Alps, the Grampians
pero
es: Mont
Balnc, Sicily.
5.
-Con
los números ordinales en títulos honoríficos:
Elisabeth
the Second (Elisabeth II), Charles V (Charles the Fifth).
6.
- Con
los nombres de trenes, barcos y aviones famosos:
The
Queen Mary, The Arrow, the Concorde
7.
- Con
nombres de paises que o son plurales o están formados por más de una entidad
territorial:
The
United States, The United Kingdom, The Netherlands;
pero no Spain,
France, Germany, Italy.
8.
- Con
las palabras theatre, cinema, movies,
pictures, opera, ballet ... cuando se utilizan como lugar de esparcimiento:
I went
to the cinema last week, We should go to the ballet.
9.
-
Cuando se hace referencia a una cosa que ya se ha citado:
We
bought a house and an apartment. The house is not far from the sea.
10.-
Con los adjetivos cuando se quieren sustantivar, se convierten por medio del artículo
en nombres plurales:
The
poor are happier than the rich.
En singular: the poor man.
11.-
Se emplea el artículo determinado en con el comparativo para decir que algo
aumneta o disminuye:
The more you giove him the more he wants.
El artículo
indeterminado se emplea delante de los nombres discontinuos (contables) que van
en singular. El artículo indeterminado no tiene plural . Cuando en
singular tiene el valor de 1 haciéndo énfasis en la cantidad, su plural puede
ser some, a few etc.
Usos del artículo
indeterminado:
1.
- Con
el significado de “uno cualquiera”:
I would like to have a fur coat.
2.
- Con
valor distributivo en expresiones de tiempo y con medidas:
Peter comes twice a year.
Cheese costs 90p a kilo
3.
- Delante de cantidades: hundred,
thousand, million, dozen:
He
knows a hundred English words.
4.
- Con
apellidos de personas no identificadas, equivalente al español: un
tal:
A Mr White came to see you
5.
- Con
nombres de profesiones y religiones:
She is a student.
I am a teacher.
He
became a Protestant.
6.
- Con
sustantivos cuando queremos rferirnos
a ellos en general:
A car is a useful thing.
7.
- Con las expresiones: What a .. !; Such a ... !; Quite a ... !;
Rather a ... ! + nombres contables en singular: What a pity; it´s quite a
good book.
It
was such a nuisance.
I read quite an interesting story !
Omisión de
los dos artículos:
1.
- Con
las palabras: school, church, prison,
jail, bed, hospital ... cuando se utilizan para el fin para el que se
hiceron:
We go
to school everyday. I
feel tired; I’m going to bed
Peter
stole a car and he is in prison now
We go
to school at 8.30 every morning.
2.
- Con
nombres abstractos o nombres concretos no determinados ni limitados:
Happiness,
Freedom
Happiness
is what I long for.
3.
- Con
los nombres de idiomas, deportes, calles, comidas:
I
speak Italian, Spanish.
I play
football, tennis, basketball.
I have
breakfast, dinner, supper.
4.
- Con
los días de la semana, que en su lugar llevan “on”:
On
Monday, On Friday.
5.
- No
se usa con los nombres propios aunque formen parte de un genitivo sajón, al
igual que con Mr, Mrs, Miss:
Mary´s
teacher lives far from here.
Mary’s
scarf; Arthur´s car;
Mr
Smithers; Mr Harrison.
6.
- Con
las palabras: next y last,
ciando nos referimos al período inmediatamente posterior o anterior al que
estamos:
Mary
left home last week.
I see
you next Friday
pero I met
your brother the last week I spent in London (no tiene por qué ser la semana
pasada).
1. With a subje
He
is
a doctor
Mr
Smith
became
an engineer
I
was made
a director
She
remained spinster
She
found herself a widow
2. In distributive phrases (a = each)
The
cloth costs
five pounds a
yard
I take
this medicine
twice
a day
These
flowers cost
a pound a dozen
Coal
costs
ten pounds a
ton
Coffee
is
sixpence
a cup
3. With complements introduced by “AS” and “FOR”
You
must fulfil your duties
as a son
I wish
we had you
for a teacher
4. In expressions of degree, measurement, number
He is
not as rich a man as you
He
lives in too expensive a manner
The
waiter has quite
a hard time
This
is
rather
a long street
I
studied for
half
an hour
He
serves
a hundred people
He won
a hundred pounds
5. In exclamations with “WHAT”, and “SUCH”
What a
pity!
What a
nice day!
It is such a pity!
It is such
a nice day!
He
has such
a different life!
6. After “WITH” and “WITHOUT”
He
wrote
with
a pen
There
is no rose
without
a thorn
7. In emphatic negatives
I
haven´t
a penny!
I can´t
see
a thing!
I don´t
understand
a word!
8. In adverbial phrases
to be in a hurry
on a large scale
as a rule
to
speak in a low voice
on an average
9. In some idioms
to
have a right
to make a noise
to make a fortune
10. “A
certain”
a certain man
11. “A”,
“ONE”
Give
me a book
= any book
Give me one book
= one, not two
Monday is a weekday
= one of several
He entered a restaurant one day
= one certain day
Just a moment, sir
= unemphatic
Just one moment, sir
= emphatic
1. Generic and determined nouns
Generic
Determined nouns
I
admired courage
I admired the courage of poor
people
Good
books are rare
The good books I bought are
rare
We
pray for peace
We pray for the peace of the
world
Happiness
does not depend on money
The happiness of most people
does not
depend
on the money they have
He
spends his money on pleasure
He spends his money on the
pleasures
of
food
They
suffered from cold and hunger
The cold and hunger they suffered was
intense
He was
sent to prison
He was sent to the new prison
They
go to school
They go to the school in that
street
2.
Omitted before titles, honorifics, and some proper
names
Persons
Places
Mr
Brown
Cairo
Captain
Brawn
Mecca
Queen
Elisabeth
Peru
King
George
Canada
Pope
Pius
Lake Superior
3. Omitted before the names of languages, games, days,
meals, streets
English
football Monday
breakfast
Oxford Street
French
tennis
Tuesday
lunch
Piccadilly Circus
German
cricket Wednesday
tea
Trafalgar Square
Russian
rugby
Thursday
dinner
Mount Avenue
Italian
hockey Friday
supper
Edgware Road
4. Next, last, the next, the last
next, last
the
next, the last
I will meet you next week
He fell ill and died the next
week
I returned from my holiday last week
This
is the last week of the year
9. In some idioms
to
have a right
to make a noise
to make a fortune
10. “A
certain”
a certain man
11. “A”,
“ONE”
Give
me a book
= any book
Give me one book
= one, not two
Monday is a weekday
= one of several
He entered a restaurant one day
= one certain day
Just a moment, sir
= unemphatic
Just one moment, sir
= emphatic
1. Generic and determined nouns
Generic
Determined nouns
I
admired courage
I admired the courage of poor
people
Good
books are rare
The good books I bought are
rare
We
pray for peace
We pray for the peace of the
world
Happiness
does not depend on money
The happiness of most people
does not
depend
on the money they have
He
spends his money on pleasure
He spends his money on the
pleasures
of
food
They
suffered from cold and hunger
The cold and hunger they suffered was
intense
He was
sent to prison
He was sent to the new prison
They
go to school
They go to the school in that
street
2.
Omitted before titles, honorifics, and some proper
names
Persons
Places
Mr
Brown
Cairo
Captain
Brawn
Mecca
Queen
Elisabeth
Peru
King
George
Canada
Pope
Pius
Lake Superior
3. Omitted before the names of languages, games, days,
meals, streets
English
football Monday
breakfast
Oxford Street
French
tennis
Tuesday
lunch
Piccadilly Circus
German
cricket Wednesday
tea
Trafalgar Square
Russian
rugby
Thursday
dinner
Mount Avenue
Italian
hockey Friday
supper
Edgware Road
4. Next, last, the next, the last
next, last
the
next, the last
I will meet you next week
He fell ill and died the next
week
I returned from my holiday last week
This
is the last week of the year
Adjetivos seguidos de INFINITIVO con TO
able
happy
afraid
likely
angry
sad
delighted
sorry
disgusted
suppose
disappointed
surprised
glad
unable
The principal was delighted to see so many students.
n
También
la estructura IT IS/WAS + Adjective +
TO-INFINITIVE se usa con los siguientes adjetivos: difficult,
easy, hard, impossible, possible:
It is difficult to light a pipe when you are driving a car.
ALL
+ CLAUSE
(Oración Subordinada)
All
seguido de una oración subordinada tiene dos significados:
1.
The only thing
cuando sujeto o complemento
del verbo TO BE:
All
he wanted to do was to go to bed.
This
is all that one has to pay.
All
you need is love.
2.
Everything
(todo) cuando se utiliza como complemento
de cualquier otro verbo o después de preposición.
Existe la excepción de un refrán, que se construye con el verbo TO BE y
significa todo (último ejemplo):
He
told me all I wanted to know.
After
all that had happened I was tired out.
ALL THE GLITTERS IS NOT GOLD. - (refrán)
.
Después de verbos negativos y la preposición WITHOUT se emplea ANY
delante de adjetivos y adverbios en grado comparativo:
Arthur
didn´t need to do any more work.
Can you push
any harder?
Without any
further delay Arthur phoned David.
Características
de los VERBOS DEFECTIVOS
Se
denominan verbos defectivos a
aquellos que carecen de alguna forma vebal, es decir, todos los verbos en inglés
tienen tres formas básicas: infinitivo,
pasado, participio pasado, alrededor de las cuales se forman todos los
tiempos verbales. Pues bien los verbos que carezcan de alguna o algunas de estas
formas se denominan DEFECTIVOS:
n
Todos
ellos carecen de infinitivo (por
tanto no se le puede poner la partícula to,
ni tampoco pueden hacer el futuro ni el condicional) y participio
de pasado (con lo que no pueden hacer tiempos compuestos ni tiempos pasivos).
n
Van
seguidos siempre de infinitivo sin to
(bien sea de presente o perfecto),
excepto OUGHT TO y USED
TO, puesto que este to
pertenecen a estos defectivos.
n
Nunca
llevan -s en las terceras personas
de singular del presente de indicativo.
n
Como
verbos auxiliares-defectivos hacen la interrogativa y negativa por sí solos.
n
Si
van seguidos por infinitivo de presente
se refieren a acciones presentes o futuras
n
Si
van seguidos por infinitivo de perfecto
se refieren a acciones pasadas.
Colocación
de “BOTH y ALL”
Cuando
son sujeto de la oración en una frase larga pueden ir delante del sustantivo al
que acompañan:
|
Both |
|
live
far from here |
|
|
(of) the
children |
|
|
All |
|
are
English |
También
pueden ir detrás del sustantivo:
|
|
both |
|
|
The
boys (they) |
|
love
chocolate |
|
|
all |
|
Si
un verbo normal como el del ejemplo, van colocados antes de él. Si el verbo es
auxiliar va detrás de él:
|
|
both |
|
|
The girls
are |
|
our
friends |
|
|
all |
|
Cuando
son sujetos de una oración, pero ésta es corta, o cuando se trate de respuestas
breves, si hay verbo auxiliar tenemos dos posibiliadades:
a)
Que
vayan entre el pronombre y el auxiliar.
b)
Que
vayan delante del auxiliar empleándolos con la preposición of o sustituyendo la forma del sujeto
del pronombre por la de complemento, como exige la
preposición:
(a)
|
|
both
|
|
|
They |
|
can |
|
|
all |
|
(b)
|
Both |
|
|
|
of them
can |
|
All |
|
Si
en estas respuestas breves prescindimos del verbo, la construcción que empleamos
es la b)
|
|
Both
of them |
|
Who
can go? |
|
|
|
All of
them |
Cuando
acompaña al sustantivo que hace oficio de complemento, en oraciones largas,
podemos emplearlos inmediatamente detrás del verbo utilizando la preposición of y la forma del complemento del
pronombre. También hay posibilidad de posponerlos a la forma de complemento del
pronombre prescindiendo de la preposición of:
(a)
|
|
both |
|
|
The girls ate |
|
the
sandwiches |
|
|
all |
|
(b)
|
|
both |
|
|
They didn´t
eat |
|
the
sandwiches |
|
|
all |
|
(c)
|
|
both |
|
|
They
wanted |
|
them |
|
|
all |
|
(d)
|
|
both |
|
They wanted them |
|
|
|
all |
Si
van con el complemento pero en las respuestas cortas o en frases también cortas,
se usan seguidas de of y el
pronombre complemento:
|
Both |
|
|
|
of us |
|
All |
|
Compuestos
de "SOME/ANY/NO y EVERY"
|
FORM |
ASSERTIVE |
NON-ASSERTIVE |
NEGATIVE |
|
VERB |
Affirmative |
Negative |
Affirmative |
|
Personas |
someone somebody |
Anyone Anybody |
no-one nobody |
|
Cosas |
something |
Anything |
nothing |
|
Lugar |
somewhere |
Anywhere |
nowhere |
|
|
sometimes |
Ever |
never |
|
|
somehow |
in
any way |
in
no way |
|
|
already |
Any
more/any longer |
no
more/no longer |
|
|
still |
Yet |
No
form |
There is somebody with you.
Don’t give him anything before lunch.
It must be somewhere in the class.
There aren’t any tourists here this summer.
There was nobody at home.
EVERY
solo tiene la forma ASSERTIVE
|
FORM |
ASSERTIVE |
|
VERB |
Affirmative |
|
|
Everybody |
|
|
Everyone |
|
|
Everything |
|
|
Everywhere |
Conjunciones "ALTHOUGH/THOUGH"
Though
es la forma apocopada (corta) de Although. Son conjunciones concesivas y
significan “aunque, sin embargo”. La
diferencia entre ellas está en la colocación en la frase:
a)
Tanto
Although como Though pueden ponerse ambas al principio
de frase:
Although/Though
they were poor they were happy.
b)
Though
puede ponerse al final de la frase después de coma. Although puede ponerse también en medio
de la frase:
They
were happy. They were poor, though
They
were happy although they were poor.
IN
CASE
se utiliza para evitar cosas que no se desean como sinónimo de “providing eventualities”. Se utiliza
para resguardarse contra algo que está sucediendo o para evitar que suceda, y se
traduce por si acaso. Suele ir con
tiempos o locuciones verbales que indican tiempo presente (normalmente
subjuntivo):
Paddy
brought his overalls in case Arthur needed any help.
Take your umbrella in
case it rains
UNLESS
es una conjunción condicional negativa que significa IF NOT (= a menos que) y se emplea para
hacer amenazas o dar avisos:
Most
people employed a professional painter, unless they were very hard
up.
Construcción "ACUSATIVA o INFINITIVA INGLESA"
Se da esta estructura en las
oraciones subordinadas sustantivas en función de Complemento Directo que dependa
de verbos de voluntad, mandato, consejo,
deseo, en donde el C.D. del
verbo principal es a su vez sujeto del infinitivo y este infinitivo se traduce
al español por subjuntivo que le sigue (es igual al infinitivo no concertado
latino):
Quiero que él venga = I
want him to
come
Si el verbo principal no es de voluntad, se hace con that + indicativo o con gerundio precedido de adjetivo
posesivo:
No
creo que ella haya dicho eso = I don´t believe that she has said
that
I don´t believe her having said that.
Cuadro de "PRONOMBRES y ADJETIVOS INGLESES
|
PERSONALES |
POSESIVOS |
REFLEXIVOS | ||
|
Sujeto |
Complemento |
Adjetivos |
Pronombres |
Pronombres |
|
I |
me |
my |
mine |
myself |
|
you |
you |
your |
yours |
yourself |
|
he |
him |
his |
his |
himself |
|
she |
her |
her |
hers |
herself |
|
it |
it |
its |
its? |
itself |
|
we |
us |
our |
ours |
ourselves |
|
you |
you |
your |
yours |
yourselves |
|
they |
them |
their |
theirs |
themselves |
PRONOMBRES
RECÍPROCOS
· Each
other:
(uno a atro) se (entre dos personas o cosas)
· One
another:
(unos a otros) se (entre más de dos)
Diferencias entre "BEEN TO y GONE TO
Ella
ha ido al banco:
- She has gone to the bank.
-
She has been to the bank.
BEEN
TO =
ir, implicando estar de vuelta, que ya ha vuelto.
Have
you ever been to England?
GONE
TO
= que estás allá, implica solo ida.
Diferencias entre "SAY/TELL/SPEAK/TALK"
SAY:
Normalmente no va seguido por la persona a la que uno se
dirige:
What
did you say?
TELL:
Con frecuencia va seguido de la persona a la que nos
dirigimos:
n Construcción
de infinitivo (o acusativa): He told me
to get on with my work.
n También
se utiliza con partículas interrogativas + infinitivo con to:
He
told me what to do.
n En
frases hechas:
To
tell lies / Tell me a story / Tell me the truth
SAY:
Significa: expresar por medio de
palabras, y TELL significa DECIR
en el sentido de contar, relatar,
narrar.
SPEAK:
tiene cuatro significados:
1.
Con
idiomas:
Do
you speak English?
2.
Con
objeto: tiene el sentido de dar una
conferencia, echar un discurso:
Today
I´m going to speak about Shakespeare.
3.
En
el teléfono: cuando se descuelga:
This
is Vigo 430387. Who´s speaking?
4.
Con
el significado de decir algo rige
las preposiciones to (con) y about (de):
She
was so angry with me that she didn´t speak to me all day.
TALK:
Tiene dos significados:
1.
Charlar,
conversar.
Rige las preposiciones to y about:
What
were they talking about?
2.
Alborotar
(make a noise with
words):
Stop talking and get on with your
work!
Ambos
significan parecer. Y la diferencia
está en que cuando van seguidos de adjetivo, se usa LOOK cuando queremos resaltar la
apariencia física de algo o alguien. Mientras que si después va un
infinitivo hay que usar siempre SEEM.
LOOK
tiene, sin embargo, otros significados, dependiendo de la preposición que le
acompañe: look at (mirar a); look for (buscar); look up (buscar algo en el lugar
apropiado); look out! (cuidado!); look forward to (esperar allgo con
ilusión, ansiar); look on to
(admirar a alguien); look down on
(despreciar); look like
(parecerse a).
ESTILO INDIRECTO (Reported Speech)
Hay
dos formas de informar lo que una persona ha dicho:
a)
ESTILO
DIRECTO: las palabras exactas dichas por el hablante original que son repetidas
y situadas entre comillas (“”). (Poniendo dos puntos (:) o coma (,) antes de las
comillas):
John
said, “I enjoy playing cricket”
He said, “I am learning English”
b)
ESTILO
INDIRECTO (Reported Speech):
n Expresar
el significado exactos sin utilizar las palabras originales del
hablante.
n La
frase del estilo indirecto se convierte en el complemento directo gramatical del
verbo introductor:
John
said that he enjoyed playing cricket.
He said that he was learning
English.
HE SAID = REPORTING
CLAUSE (frase
introductora)
REST
= REPORTED CLAUSE (frase del estilo indirecto)
Los
tipos principales de oraciones ( Oraciones subordinadas sustantivas
(Statements), Preguntas (Questions), Mandatos (Commands), como tmbién
Exclaciones (Exclamations) se pueden expresar en estilo indirecto. Las
construcciones son como sigue:
I)
STATEMENTS ( “That-clause”)
A)
Cambios de tiempos Verbales. Varios casos:
1.
Cuando
el verbo introductor esta en presente simple, pretérito perfecto o
futuro, la oración directa se hace sin efectuar ningun cambio de tiempo
verbal:
He
says/will say/has said, “This work is too difficult”
“ “
“ “ “
“ that this work is too
difficult.
2.
Pero
cuando el verbo introductir está en un tiempo verbal en pasado, que es lo
normal, es normal que el verbo de la frase indirecta pase a un tiempo verbal
anterior, lo que se denomina en inglés BACK-SHIFT (=cambio a una referencia
temporal anterior). Dos tipos posibles de
back-shift:
a)
PRESENTE
(NOW) a PASADO (THEN)
Presente “ Pasado
Preteriro Perfecto
“ Pretérito
Pluscuamperfecto
Presente de defectivos “ Pasado de
defectivos
b)
PASADO
(THEN) a PRETERITO PLUSCUAMPERFECTO (BEFORE
THEN)
c)
PRETERITO
PLUSCUAMPERFECTO (BEFORE THEN) à
No back-shift (no es posible ningun cambio a tiempo anterior porque en Inglés no
hay ningún modo de expresar BEFORE-BEFORE-THEN ni en tiempo ni aspecto
verbal.
CAMBIOS:
en la oración de estilo indirecto:
Simple
Present ---------------- Simple Past
Simple Past--------------------- Past
Perfect
Future
shall/will --------------- Conditional should/would
Present
Progressive---------- Past Progressive
Present
Perfect---------------- Past Perfect
DOS
POSIBILIDADES DE BACK-SHIFT
Presente---------------------------Pasado
Pasaso-----------------------------Preterito
Pluscuamperefcto
“I
am tiredӈ
she complained that she was tired.
“I love cricket”à
he said that he loved cricket.
“He is being a fool”à
Everybody thought that he was being a fool.
“I saw them yesterday” à
She told me that she had seen them yesterday.
Presente Pasado Pluscuamperfecto
E.D. NOW THEN BEFORE THEN
E.I. THEN (pasado) BEFORE THEN (Pluscuamperfecto) (Nothing at all)
E.D.
“Max had already gone when I phoned him this morning”
E.I. Jim said that Max had already gone when he
phoned that morning”
Explicación
del BACK-SHIFT: el tiempo de la oración original, que sea presente NOW para el
estilo directo, pasa a ser pasado THEN para el estilo indirecto y se está en
pasado THEN pasa a pluscuamperfecto BEFORE THEN haciendo el cambio respecto al
PUNTO DE ORIENTACION.
EXCEPTIONS:
a)
Cuando
lo expresado por la oración de estilo indirectohe idea coincide en tiempo y hora
con lo expresado en estilo directo (o el estado de cosas reflejadas todavía
existe en el momento de hablar), no hay necesidad de hacer cambios en los
tiempos verbales. Es decir, cunado el verbo introductor está en tiempo pasado, el tiempo presente se mantiene en la oración del
estilo indirecto cuando exprese una verdad universal ( o una generalidad exacta, verdades generales
o hechos
habituales).
Socrates
said: “ Virtue is knowledge”
Socrates
said that virtue is knowledge.
Peter
said: “The moon is 50.000 miles away”
Peter
said that the moon is 50.000 miles away.
Jim
said: “I eat at two o’clock everyday”
Jim
said that he eats at two o’clock everyday.
b)
El
Back-shift desde Pasado Simple / Pasado Continuo a Preterito Pluscuamperfecto
puede también no aplicarse en las oraciones causales, si de algun modo cambia el
significado de la frase en aspecto verbal, aunque generalmente el pasado pasa a
pluscuamperfecto:
She
said:”I decided not to buy the house because it was in the main
road”
She said that she had decided not to buy
the house because it was in the main road.
El
Pasado y el Pasado Continuo no cambia en las oraciones
temporales:
He
said: “When we were living in London, we had a lot of
friends”
He said that when they were living in London,
they had a lot of friends.
c)
Auxiliares
Modales: WOULD, SHOULD, OUGHT TO, MIGHT, USED TO, COULD, MUST (ind.), HAD BETTER
normalmente no cambian:
He
said: “I might be there”
He
said that he might be there.
She
said:”I would help him if I could”
She
said that she would help him if she could.
MUST
(como Obligación) puede cambiar también a HAD TO:
She
said:”You must go”
She
said that you must/had to go.
SHOULD
(after I/We) se cambia a WOULD, pero cuando implica Obligacion permanece sin
cambio:
He
said:”I should be grateful if I ...”
He
said that he would be grateful if he ....
I
said:”You should be more careful”
I
told him that he should be more careful.
He
said:”If my children were older I should emigrate”
He
said that if his children were older he would emigrate.
d)
Oraciones
Condicionales del tipo 2 permanecen también invariables. Como también lo hacen
los Tiempos Pasado (= subjunctive) utilizados después de WISH, IT IS TIME, WOULD
RATHER ...
He
said:”I wish I knew”
He said that he wished he
knew.
She said:”I´d rather Tom
went”
She said that she’d rather Tom
went.
B)
Otros
cambios que son necesarios cuando se pasa de Estilo Directo a Indirecto:
La
conjunción that se puede poner
inmeditamente después del verbo introductor, pero no es esencial y muy a menudo
se suprime.
C)
Los Pronombres y Adjetivos Posesivos generalmente cambian de 1st o
2nd a 3rd persona (excepto cuando el hablante está
informando con sus propias palabraas); es decir, cuando el verbo de la frase del
estilo indirecto tiene el mismo sujeto que el verbo de la frase de estilo
directo:
I
said:”I like my new house”
I said that I liked my new
house.
He said:”I have forgotten
the combination of my safe”
He said that he had
forgotten the combination of his safe.
Algunas
veces se le puede añadir un nombre para evitar ambigüedad:
Tom
said:”He came in through the window”
Tom said that the thief had come
in through the window.
D)
Palabras
que se refieren a LUGAR y TIEMPO y denoten cercanía pasa a sus correspondientes
palabras que denoten lejanía. Si el
estilo Indirecto se hace en el mismo día a lugar estos cambios no son
necesarios:
thisàthat hereàthere
theseàthose tomorrowàthe
next day/the day after
nowàthen yesterdayàthe
day before/the previous day
agoàbefore the day before
yesterdayàtwo
days before
todayàthat
day the day after
tomorrowàin
two days’ time
We
met at the bridge and he said:”I’ll be here again
tomorrow”
We
met at the bridge and he said that he’d be there again the next
day.
· If
the speech is reporting on the same day, these changes aren’t
necessary:
At breakfast this morning he
said:”I’ll be very busy today”
At breakfast this morning he said
that he’ll be very busy today.
II)
QUESTIONS (Wh-clauses)
Las
reglas anteriores se aplican también a las preguntas indirectas; sin embargo hay
unos puntos adicionales que hay que significar o tener en
cuenta:
1)
El
verbo introductior SAY se cambia a
ASK o algun verbo similar de acuerdo
a lo que intentemos querer decir: INQUIRED/WONDERED/WANTED TO KNOW
...
2)
La
palabra de unión de la frase del verbo introductor con la frase del estilo
indirecto es IF or WHETHER, excepto cuando las preguntas
directas empiecne con unpronombre o partícula interrogativa tales como WHO/ WHY/ WHAT/ WHERE/ HOW /WHEN...
etc. que será la que haga de unión.
3)
La
estructura interrogativa de las preguntas directas se reemplaza por la
CONSTRUCCION AFIRMATIVA en el Estilo Indirecto; tanto los auxiliares DO/DOES/DID
cono el SIGNO de INTERROGACIÓN se omiten:
· “Do
you live here?”
He
asked me if I lived there.
· “Did
you go to England last year?”
The
teacher asked the student if he had gone to England the previous
year.
· He
said:”I have left my watch at home. Can you tell me the time,
please?”
He
said that he had left his watch at home and asked me (politely) if I could tell
him the time.
· “Does
Peter speak Spanish?”
He
asked if Peter spoke Spanish.
· “What’s
your name?”
He
asked her what her name was.
· “Which
chair shall I sit in?”
He
wonderedwhich chair he should sit in.
IF/WHETHER.-
El uso generalmente favorece a IF cuandoquiera que la distinción entre
ellos no sea necesaria:
He
asked me if (or whether) I had seen the film.
WHETHER
expresa una duda o una elección entre dos alternativas así muy a menudo va
seguido de OR:
“Is
it your turn or Susan’s?”
She asked whether it was his turn
or Susan’s.
WHETHER
(y no IF) se utiliza
en:
a)
Cuando
la pregunta indirecta precede a la oración principal:
Whether
this is true or not, I cannot say.
b)
Delante
de un INFINITIVO:
She
hasn’t decided whether to sail or fly to America.
He
wondered whether to leave.
c)
Cuando
introduce una Oración Concesiva:
Whether
he works or not, I don’t think he will pass his/the exam.
a)
Pueden
ser especulaciones acerca del futuro o pueden pedir información de algun
acontecimiento futuro también. estas preguntas siguen la Regla Ordinaria
(shallàwould).
El verbo introductor es normalmente: WONDER
Las Especulaciones son normalmente
introducidas por WONDER:
· “Where
shall I be (this time) next year?”
He
wondered whre he would be in a year’s time
· “When
shall I know the results of the test?”
The
student asked when he would know the results of the test.
· “Shall
I ever understand women?”
He
asked himself if he would ever understand women.
b)
Ofrecimientos:
El verbo introductor es: OFFER
· “Shall
I bring you a cup of tea?”
He
offered to bring me a cup of tea or
He
offered me a cup of tea.
c)
Sugerencias:
Verbo introductor: SUGGEST + that-should o -ING
· “Shall
we meet at the theatre?”
He
suggested that they should meet at the
theatre. (formal)
meeting at the
theatre.
their meeting at the
theatre. (standard)
them meeting at the
theatre. (colloquial)
d)
Petición
de instrucciones o consejo:
alternativa WAS/WERE TO
· “Shall
we send it to your flat, Sir?”
He
asked the customer if they should send it to his flat.
were to send it to his
flat.
· “What
shall we do with your mail while you’re away?”
His
landlady asked Paul what she should do with his mail while he was
away.
what she
was to do with his mail while he was away .
5)
WILL
YOU/WOULD YOU/COULD YOU
a)
Preguntas
Ordinarias:
He
said: “Will you be here tomorrow?”
He
asked her if she would be there the following day.
b)
Peticiones:
ASK + Object +
To-infinitive
He said, “Will you help me,
please?”
He asked me (politely) to help
him
c)
Invitacion/Ofrecimiento:
verbo tansitivo OFFER
He
said, “Will you have a drink?”
He offered me a
drink.
d)
Mandatos:
Depende de la entonación:
“Will
you be quiet for a moment !”
“Do be quiet for a moment !”
àHe
told them to be quiet
III)
COMMANDS
Las
reglas que afectan a pronombres, adjetivos y otros cambios también se pueden
aplicar a los mandatos indirectos, excepto que no hay backshif porque no hay verbos en forma
personal (son oraciones subordinadas de infinitivo, que es una forma no
personal)
Additional
notes:
1)
El
vebro introductor SAY ... cambia a
un verbo of MANDATO or PETICION tales como TELL/ORDER/COMMAND... de ascuerdo a la intención
que queramos expresar:
My
mother said to me: “Go home !”
My mother told me to go
home.
2)
Se
tiene que introducir un Complemento Directo que representa la persona a la que
va dirigida el mandato:
I
was there and he said: “Stand up !”
I was there and he told me to stand
up.
3)
La
forma imperativa del verbo en el mandato directo pasa a su corresponsdiente
forma de infinitivo con to, si el mandato es negativo se le
antepone NOT al infinitivo con to
(Mandato Negativo = NOT + TO-INFINITIVE):
“Be
quiet !” à
I told Peter to be quiet.
“Fire !” à
The captain ordered the soldiers to fire.
“Run quickly !” à
He told me (us) to run quickly.
“Put on you
space-suits !”
He told/commanded/instructed
them to put on their space-suits.
En
inglés hay muchas posibilidades de expresar un mandato, for example: “WILL
YOU?”
“Shut
the door, will you?” (Es
un mandato)
He
told him to shut the door.
Es
muy fuerte y dependede la entonación:
“Will
you stop talking !”
The teacher told the
students to stop talking.
Mandatos Negativos: NOT +
TO-INFINITIVE
His friend said: “Don’t be
rude !”
His friend asked him not to be
rude.
“Don’t move, boys !”
à
He told the boys not to move.
“Please, don’t forget !”
à
She begged me not to forget.
Otras
formas de Estilo Indirecto de espresar Mandatos
Indirectos:
1)
La Construcción: To BE + TO-INFINITIVE
He said:”Don’t open the
door !”
He told me not to open the door or
He said that I was no to open the door.
a)
El verbo introductor en tiempo presente:
He
says:”Meet me at the station !”
He says that we are to meet at the
station.
b)
Mandato
precedido po una oración subordinada:
1)
Tiempo
2)
Condicional
He said:”If she leaves the house follow
her”
He told me to folllow her if she left
the house or
He said that if she left the house I
was to follow her.
IV)
EXCLAMATIONS:
Las
Exclamaciones en el estilo indirecto pasan a ser Oraciones Subordinadas
(that-clauses). Una exclamación es en cierto modo una
oración:
a)
What
como un determinante en un frase nominal.
How
como gradación con adjectivo/adverbio.
“What
a beautiful present !” à
He said that it was a beautiful present
“What a lovely house !” à
He said that it was a lovely house.
“What a terrible noise !”
à
He said that it was a terrible noise.
“What a different situation she is
in !” à
He said that she was in different situation.
“How marvellous !” à
He said that it was marvellous.
“How beautiful she dances !”
à
He said that she danced beautiful.
b)
Para
expresar emcionesse utilizan INTERJECCIONES:
“Ugh !” /Lx/ (disgust)
“Oh !” /Ou/
(surprise)
“Ouch !”/¶ut€/
(pain)
He gave an exclamation of
disgust/surprise/pain.
He exclaimed with
disgust/surprise/pain.
c)
Otros
casos no tienen reglas y todo depende del significado de la
exclamación:
He
said:”Good morning” à
He greeted me/wished me a good morning.
He said:”HappyChristmas” à
He wished me a Happy Christmas.
He said:”Liar” à
He called me a liar.
He said:”Congratulations” à
He congratulated me.
He said:”Damn !” à
He swore
d)
Dos
casos especiales: PLEASE y THANK YOU
“I
should like some tea, please !” (please is not use in
R.S.)
He said politely that he would like
some tea or
He asked politely for some
tea.
He said:”Thank
you”
He thanked
me.
V)
LET’S/LET
HIM/LET HER/LET THEM.-
Genralmente
expresan una sugerencia y se hace
con el verbo SUGGEST en Estilo
Indirecto. Hay otras varias formas de expresar sugerencia: What about ...
etc.
Se
utiliza el verbo SUGGEST como verbo
introductor seguido de:
a)
-ING
form (precedida de una adjetivo posesivo o pronombre
personal)
b)
That-clause
with SHOULD
He said:” Let´s have a good
breakfast !”
He suggested their having a good
breakfast. (standard English)
He suggested them having a good
breakfast. (spoken English)
He suggested that they should have a
good breakfast (formal English)
He said:”Let´s wait here till the
rain stops”
He suggested their waiting there
till the rain stopped.
He suggested that they should wait
till the rain stopped.
Formas
Negativas:
He said:”Let´s not say anything
about it”
He suggested their not saying
anything about it.
He suggested that they should not say
anything about it.
Otras
formas de expresar SUGERENCIAS:
1)
What
about + -ING: “What about going to the cinema this
evening”
He suggested going to the cinema that
evening.
2)
Shall
+ 1st person
3)
How
about + -ING form
4)
Do
you feel like + -ING
5)
Suppose
+ simple present.
VI)
YES/NO
ANSWERS:
Se
expresan en el estilo Indirect con SUJETO + verbo auxiliar
apropiado:
He
said:”Can you swim?” and I said: “No”
He asked me if I could
swim and I said that I couldn’t.
He said:”Do you like
it?” and she said:”Yes”
He asked her if she
liked it and she answered that she did.
Yes/No:
se pone en el estilo indirecto con el auxiliar solo, y la negación si la
contestación es No:
“Would
you be here for the next ten minutes?” she said, and I
said:”Yes”
She asked if I would be
there for the following ten minutes and I answered that I
would.
VII)
MIXED
TYPES: (Question + Statement or Command), poco a poco:
· “I
don’t know the way, do you?”, he asked
He said that he
didn’t know the way and asked me if I did.
· “You
pressed the button”, said the mechanic. “Don’t do it again. You might have a
nasty accident”.
She had pressed the button and the
mechanic told her (warned her) not to do it again because (as) she might have a
nasty accident.
· “Could
you show me to work it? I’m not used to electric typewriter’s”, she
said
She asked me if I could show her to work
it as (adding that/ explaining that) she wasn’t used to electric
typewriter’s
· “Ugh !
there is a slug in my lettuce, writer !”, she cried
She gave an exclamation of /she exclaimed
with/ disgust because (that) there was a slug in her lettuce and cried for the
waiter.
· “What
about going for a swim. It is quite fine now”, he said
He suggested going for a swim because it
was quite fine then.
VIII)
FREE
INDIRECT SPEECH.-
a)
Un
recurso muy común en la narrativa.
b)
Consiste
en expresar una oración poniendo el verbo en un tiempo anterior mientras se
omite (o se pone entre parentesis) las oraciones del verbo introductor, que son
las siglas convencionales E.I.
c)
Los
pronombres y tiempos verbales se cambian como en el estilo indirecto normal,
pero por otra parte la estructura permanece como en el E.D. (se mantiene la
inversion) porque no hay verbo introductor.
d)
Es
un medio más flexible para expresarse que el normal (=dependent) E.I., más concision: nada de he said, he exclaimed
...
es
utilizado por Virginia Wolf, James Joice etc.
Mary,
“Why do they always have to pick on me?” --------------
D.S.
Mary asked why did they always have
to pick on her? --------- R.S.
Why did they always (grooned Mary)
have to pick on her? --- F.I.S.
or
Why did they always have to pick on her? ------------------------
F.I.S.
It´s
(ABOUT) TIME + Simple Past
Va
seguido siempre de pasado simple con
significado de presente o futuro:
It´s
(about) time we found a flat.
It´s time he was here.
He is late.
It´s
NO GOOD + -ING
It´s
no good / It isn´t any good siempre va seguido de gerundio (-ing) con significado de there is no
advantage:
It´s no good looking up hundreds of flats.
Back to the Top
EXLAMACIONES
Normalmente en inglés se hacen las exclamaciones de dos maneras:
1.
What + a/an + sustantivo contable singular
What
+ sustantivo (plural o incontable)
What
a beautiful day!
What
beautiful days!
What
weather!
2.
How + adjetivo o adverbio + pronombre sujeto + verbo:
How
beautiful she is!
How
beautifully she dances!
Back to the Top
Expressing
WISHES and REGRETS
I
wish he had a bit more more money ...
Do
you wish you could speak Portuguese?
· Con
el verbo to be, se utiliza were para todas las personas
(subjuntivo)
I
wish the kitchen were a bit longer.
Estos
deseos som imposibles. Wish suele
traducirse por: Ojalá.
b)
Si
nos referimos al pasado.
Se
hace con wish + past
perfect:
I wish I had seen you yesterday.
I wish you had married me instead of him.
False
Friends
miserabe
# miserable (triste)
No
tiene donde caerse muerto = He is poor
because he hasn't any money.
Eres
un miserable, tacaño = You are a mean
man and egoistic.
He
is miserable (triste) because his
father was dead.
Realize
# realizar (= darse cuenta) // realizar
= do/make/carry out/ perform
They realized that she was wrong.
They made a cake.
Actually
# actualmente (= realmente) // actualmente
= at present/currently/nowadays
in fact, indeed
Actually it is wonderful.
At present he is a singer.
Actual
# actual (= real) // actual
= modern/current/present/fashionable
The story is actual
It's
a current issue (tema de actualidad).
Boring
# bored, etc. adjs. (=
aburrido =es aburrido // = aburrido=estar
aburrido)
Story
# history (cuento, (historieta)
// historia (asignatura))
End
# ending (fin/final) = finish,close,purpose,extremo // final, conclusion,
desenlace
After
# afterwards (prep, conj.// adverb.)
Know
# meet (saber, conocer // encontrarse con, toparse con)
Exit
# Success (salida // éxito)
Notice
# News
Program
/ Programme
On
the one hand / On the other hand
To
realise something / to make a dream come true
Avoid
# prevent (evitar, eludir // impedir a uno que haga algo)
Follow
/ Continue (seguir, entender // seguir, continuar)
Cook
# Cooker ( cocinar, cocinera // cocina, electrodomJstico)
Econimic
= económico, rentable (developmen, growth, policy)
Economical
= económico (method/style/appliance), puede ir con more, less, very etc.
Classic
= clásico, típico, memorable (study, text, play)
Classical
= clásico, culto (theory/idea/method/music)
Work
# job (inc.=trabajo, empleo // con.= trabajo, empleo, tarea)
Travel
= viaje, viajar en general
Trip
= viaje, excursión (incluye estancia)
Journey
= viaje, trayecto (solo desplazamiento)
Like
/ as (para comparaciones, ejemplos // como, en calidad de)
Solve
# Resolve (= solucionar/solution // decidir/resolution/decide)
They solved the problem.
They resolve to go to the party.
Used
to // Usually (= hábitos en el pasado
// hábitos en el presente)
They
used to sleep longer in summer
They ussually sleep less in winter.
Another
(sing,) uno más igual al anterior.
Please,
give me a book ..... give me another (book).
Other
(sing. o plural) otro más distinto al
anterior.
Please,
give me a book ..... give me other (# book).
Pass
(movement, go by)
I passsed in front of you and you didn't look at me.
Spend
(occupy time, spend time = pasar el
tiempo)
(buy
things, spend money = gastar dinero)
I spent my holidays in Italy.
I spent a lot of maney.
Waste
(malgastar el dinero)
(perder
el tiempo)
I
wasted my money.
I wasted the time.
Be
(in position, place = estar en un lugar)
He
is in Vigo.
Stand
(on your feet = estar de pié)
He is tired because of standing in the bus.
Stay
(not to go away = quedarse)
He didn't go to the party, he stayed at home.
I'm
sitting
= estoy sentado.
I'm
standing
= estoy de pié.
I'm
kneeling
= estoy arrodillado.
I'm
lying
= estoy tumbado.
To
lie
lied
lied =
mentir
He used to lie.
To
lie
lay
lain =
yacer, tumbarse
She lies in peace with her husband.
When she was dead, she lay in peace.
To
lay
laid
laid =
poner horinzontal (la mesa), colgarse
When
she starts to lay from the tree, she broke one leg.
To
raise
raised raised
= (tr) levantar, alzar
The soldiers raised the flags.
To
rise
rose risen
= (intr) levantarse, salir el sol
I like to see the sun rising.
To
hang
hanged
hanged = colgar, ahorcar,
ejecutar a uno
The thieves were hanged by the police.
To
hang
hung
hung
= colgar, estar colgado
Mary hung the clothes.
Hard
(adj.): difficult
The problem is hard.
(adv.): much
I'm tired because I worked hard.
Hardly
(adv.): scarcely = apenas
I'm not tired because I hardly worked.
|
To
live (verb) = vivir lives
(3rd person)
= vive life
(sust. sing.)
=
vida lives
(sust. plur.)
= vidas live
(adj.) = en
vivo, en directo alive
(adj.) = vivo no muerto
(not dead) living
(adj.) = que tiene vida interna,
funcionamiento
interno
(inner working) |
|
I
live in Vigo. He
lives in Vigo. My
life is very happy. Their
lives are very sad. The
live concert was very good. He
isn't dead, he is alive. it
is a living essence. |
Last
= the final one (no hay m<s despuJs)
This has been my last exam in COU.
= the one before (el inmediatamente anterior)
Last night i went to the party.
Latest
= the most recent (el m<s reciente): the latest one
I have just read Cela's latest novel (adn no muri\ y puede escribir
m<s)
The
last one = the last one up to now (el dltimo hasta el momento)
I have just read Shakespeare last novel (ya muri\, no puede escribir
m<s)
Latter:
the former ... the latter (el primero ... el dltimo de una enumeraci\n)
We
went there with Peter and Mary; the former (Peter) invited us, the latter
(Mary) paid for our dinner.
Late
= after the time fixed (llegar despuJs de un tiempo)
You are always late.
Later
= comparativo de "late"
You
are always later than me.
Formas
de expresar la edad
|
He
is 40. He
is 40 years old. He
is 40 years of age. He
is about/around 40. He
is about/around 40 years old. He
is in his fourties
(40-49) He
is in his early fourties (40-45) He
is in his late fourties
(45-49) He
is fourty something
(40 y algo) |
|
He
is a baby
( 0 - 2) He
is a child
( 2 - 8) He
is a boy
( 8 -
14) He
is a teenager
( 13 - 19) He
is a young man
( 19 - 35) He
is a middle-aged man ( 35 - 55) He is an elderly man (anciano |
Formulas para hacer composiciones
|
Expressing
personal opinions In
my opinion From
my point of view In
my view Personally As
far as I’m concerned |
Expressing
contrast However Nevertheless On
the one hand On
the other hand Although In spite of / Despite |
|
Expressing
facts As
a matter of fact In
fact Actually |
Adding
information Apart
from this / that Moreover
/ In addition |
|
Giving
examples For
example / For instance Such as |
Rephrasing That
is (to say) In
other words |
|
Causes
and results Because
of this / that For
this / that reason That’s
why Therefore As
a result of Consequently So... |
Modifiers To
a certain extent More
or less At
least Basically Especially In
particular Above all |
|
Personal
letters Thanks
for your letter It
was great to hear from you I’m
writing to tell you How’s
it going By
the way, how’s your sister Well,
Middleford isn’t very big Anyway,
I must stop writing now Write
soon and tell me all your news Best wishes. |
Writing
dialogues Really? You
know, it’s fast and cheap It
doesn’t fill you up, do you know what I mean? On
the top of all that, it’s so fatty To
tell you the truth, I love fast food You’re
joking! Of
course not. |
|
Formal
letters Dear
Sir / Madam I’m
writing to you about I
look forward to hearing from you Yours
faithfully Yours
sincerely |
Time
connectors First
of all Next
/ Then After
that While In
the meantime All
of a sudden Finally In
the end |
Summarising:
In
short / In conclusion
On the whole / To sum up
CONJUNCIONES
Y CONECTORES DE FRASES
1.-
Tipos
y usos:
a)
Conjunciones coordinantes: and,
or, but
b)
Conectores: however, indeed
c)
Conjunciones subordinantes:
-
Temporales
|
After As
long as Before Till When Whenever |
As As
soon as Since Until While Etc. |
-
de
lugar: where, wherever
-
causales:
because, since, as
-
de
finalidad: so that, in order that
-
consecutivas:
as a result, so, then, so + adjetivo/adverbio
+ that,
such
+ nombre + that
-
concesivas:
although, though, even though
-
de
manera: as, as if, as though
2.-
Significados
2.
1 Relación aditiva
|
And As
well Furthermore Both
... and ... In
addition to this And
what’s more Not
only ... but also... |
Also Besides Likewise Too Moreover Again As
well as |
2.2
Relación alternativa
|
Or,
either ... or... Neither
... nor... Whether
... or... |
Otherwise Or
else Etc. |
2.3
Relación contrastiva
|
But Still Whereas Yet Despite |
However Nevertheless While Notwithstanding On
the other hand |
2.4
Relación de causa-efecto
|
So Consequently Due
to the fact that |
Therefore Because Etc. |
2.5
Relación de ordenación
-
Cronológica:
conjunciones temporales
-
Lógica:
Firstly ..., secondly..., and finally
Comprensión
de texto: Respuestas
|
According
to the text... The
text mentions... The
text says that... |
The
text states that... The
text refers to... |
Resumen
del contenido del texto: Introducelo diciendo
|
The
text is about... This
is the story of... The
text deals with... |
The
author states /suggests/criticizes/explains/points
out /lists/highlights/argues/puts forwards... |
Preguntas
hipotéticas: Respuestas
Where
would you like to spend your next few years? I
would like to...
Preguntas
que solicitan tu opinión: Respuestas
|
What
do you think of...? Do
you believe...? |
I
think that... Well,
personally, I feel... I
believe... In
my opinion... From
my point of view... |
THE GENDER
Kinds:
1.- Male
2.- Female
3.- Either male or female
4.- Neither male or female
These concepts reflected in
grammatical gender of nouns
1) Masculine: man, bull
2) Feminine: woman, cow
3) Common words: student, friend
4) Neuter: tree, table
Sex in Modern English
Grammar is expressed in various ways:
1) By the meaning of the noun itself:
COMMON MASCULINE FEMININE
parent father
mother
child boy
girl
son
daughter
spouse husband wife
youth lad
lass
sovereign
king
queen
horse stallion mare
sheep ram
ewe
deer (=ciervo) stag
doe
(hind)
swine (cerdo) boar sow
fowl cock hen
Some words have only
masculine form:
MASCULINE FEMININE
widower widow
bridegroom bride
bachelor spinster
nephew niece
lord
lady
uncle aunt
master
mistress
dog (hound) bitch (breach)
drake duck
brother sister
monk nun
gentleman lady
wizard (brujo) witch
gander (ganso) goose
cob (swan) cisne hen
2.- Masculine and Feminine
are also indicated by addition of a suffix:
a) The most common feminine
suffix is -ESS:
MASCULINE FEMININE
abbot abbess
actor
actress
baron
baroness
duke duchess
emperor empress
god
goddess
host
hostess
lion
lioness
major
majoress
prince
princess
negro
negress
tiger tigress
waiter
waitress
b) Other femenine suffixes
are:
-TRIX -INE -INA -ETTE
-I -EUSE -ENNE
MASCULINE FEMININE
administrator administratix
victor victrix
prosecutor prosecutrix
executor executrix
hero
heroine
Joseph Josephine
Czar
Czarina
Baron Baronette
fiancé fiancée
protégé protégée
masseur masseuse
comedian comedienne
3.- By using an extra word which clearly shows the gender, either as
suffix or prefix:
MASCULINE FEMININE
doctor lady doctor
male nurse nurse
boyfriend girlfriend
dog fox bitch fox (wizen)
Jackass Jenny ass
billy goat nanny goat
(=niñera)
laundry man laundry woman
milkman milkmaid
(milk
woman)
landlord landlady
tom cat tabby cat
cock pigeon
hen pigeon
cock robin
Jenny robin
4.- By use of pronouns = personal pronouns which refer to the nouns are
the most common gender indicators in English. The 3rd. person singular pronouns
have different forms for masculine, feminine
or neuter:
The student
hadn't got her book with her.
My friend said that he had sold his house.
Sometimes the 3rd. person
singular pronouns are prefixed to words to distinguish gender:
MASCULINE FEMININE
a he-donkey a she-donkey
a he-devil a she-devil
a he-bear a she-bear
5.- Sometimes the words MALE/FEMALE are prefixed to other words:
MASCULINE FEMININE
a male cat a female cat
a male rabbit a female rabbit
COMMON GENDER.-
In English there are many
words for animate beings that do not indicate their gender. That is to say,
these words indicate both masculine and feminine:
cousin friend person
fool neighbour
When making a sentence using
one of these words, when the gender is not known you can use "he/she/they":
Your cousin
wrote but he/she didn't say his/her name.
All substantives coming from
verbs to denote agents are common gender:
reader
teacher drunkard inhabitant copyist liar
Some substantives coming
from other substantives also denote common gender:
criminal librarian musician
prisoner
Because of social conditions many common
gender words are used only of:
1) males: baker, tailor, merchant, soldier, shoemaker, captain
2) females: nurse, milliner (sombrerera), cook, flirt (maja), dressmaker
Some words having masculine
or feminine
forms have become common gender by using one of the forms to denote
the genus:
Masculine: man, dog, lion, Jew
Feminine: duck, goose, hen, bee
UNNATURAL GENDER.-
Names of people.- They become neuter when the idea of
personality is little developed:
baby.
She was a baby. It is a girl.
When we wish to speak
scornfully of a person we use the pronoun "that" or "it":
Would you like to be married to that? Fancy
seeing it every day.
Name of animals.- domestic and large beasts are normally
personified according to their sex:
I have a dog. His name is Sam.
With smaller animals and
birds, the neuter is generally used, but some are referred to as masculine and
some as feminine:
Masculine: cuckoo, rabbit, mouse.
Feminine: dove, sparrow, lark, thrush, mole, bee, hare.
Name of things.- countries and cities are generally neuter,
but in literary English they can be referred to as feminine:
England ruled the seas thanks to its/her
navy.
Sexless things.- generally referred to as feminine: moon, nature, sea, ships, engines,
aircraft, motor-cars ... and abstract ideas.
Sexless things.- referred to as masculine: sun, rivers, mountains, war, death etc.
GENDER IN PRONOUNS.-
First and second person
pronouns do not denote gender because it is clear from context:
I
me my mine you your yours
For the third person there
are three forms: Masculine, feminine
and neuter. Sometimes this causes
difficulties in expression: it is necessary to use constructions like "he/she/they":
Nobody knows how to do that, do they?
The reader's heart, if he or she has a heart ...
Some pronouns are two-sex and some no-sex:
two-sex no-sex
Interrogative
Who? what?
Relative
Who which
Indefinite
somebody
something
anybody
anything
everybody
everything
GERUNDIO
Como forma no personal del verbo tiene todas las funciones
del sustantivo:
a) Como sujeto de la oración:
Living in London is expensive.
La misma función también la tiene
el infinitivo con to y la diferencia
que hay en poner de sujeto un gerundio
o un infinitivo está en que con el
gerundio se ha experimentado la acción, mientras que con el infinitivo no
necesariamente:
To live in London is expensive.
La estructura de gerundio
como sujeto equivale a: IT´S + ADJETIVO
+ TO-INFINITIVE:
It is expensive to live in London.
b) Después de los siguientes verbos hay que utiizar gerundio:
admit anticipate avoid consider delay deny
detest enjoy excuse* finish forgive* imagine
involve keep mind miss postpone resist
rest stop help (en can´t help) stand
(en can´t stan)
· A los verbos que llevan asterisco
se le suele poner un adjetivo posesivo antes del gerundio.
Arthur didn´t
enjoy cleaning the flat.
My husband
detests doing his own cooking.
c) Se pone gerundio después de ciertos phrasal
verbs, principalmente en aquellos phrasal que van seguidos de dos
partículas, dónde la segunda partícula siempre es preposición: carry on, give up, keep on, leave off, put off, do
away with, put up with...
Many firms are
giving up employing their own typists
d) La regla en inglés es que después de preposición hay que poner siempre gerundio; por tanto hay que poner
gerundio despues de los verbos que rigen preposición, dentro de esos verbos,
los más utilizados son: accuse someone
of, approve of, to be fond of, to be good/bad at, to be used to, to feel like,
to insist on, to look forward to, to succeed in, to think of/about, what about
...?
She left without saying anything.
e) También hay que poner gerundio después de los adjetivos posesivos:
Mary insisted
on Arthur´s helping / on his helping.
En inglés hablado o en inglés informal se puede cambiar este
posesivo por un nombre o pronombre personal de complemento:
Mary insisted
on Arthur helping
Will you excuse
my leaving early? // Will you excuse me leaving early?
Puede hacerse también con la estructura de condicional,
evitando así el posesivo:
GLOSSARY - COU
Aprobar un
exámen = TO PASS
Aprobar,
dar aprobación a algo, aprobar una medida = TO APPROVE (OF)
I passed the exam.
I
approve the law.
Suspender un exámen = TO
FAIL : I failed the exam.
Suspender, tener colgado algo =
TO SUSPEND : I suspended the clothing.
Copiar un exámen, engañar = TO CHEAT : I cheated
the exam.
Asignatura = SUBJECT: I have eight subjects.
Firma = SIGNATURE: I like your signature.
Firmar = TO SIGN: I signed the paper.
Año Académico = YEAR / LEVEL: I
study 3rd year/level.
Cursillo = COURSE: I attended to English course. I
haven't passed the course.
Carrera Universitaria = UNIVERSITY COURSE: He studies a University course.
Carrera Profesional = CAREER:
This career is very (dangerous) difficult.
Carrera de correr = RACE: The race will be tomorrow.
Título Universitario = DEGREE:
He has a degree.
Título de Bachiller / Licenciado = BACHELOR DEGREE: He has a bachelor
degree.
Doctorado (Letras) MASTER OF ARTS // (Ciencias) MASTER OF SCIENCE
Your
uncle is Master of Arts / Sciences
Catedrático = (Proffesor) DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY // PHILOSOPHY DOCTOR
His
father is Doctor of Philosophy
Notas = MARKS/QUALIFICATIONS: Your marks are good
Hacer un exámen (lo hace el alumno) = TO TAKE: The pupil took an exam.
Hacer un exámen (lo prepara el profesor) = TO MAKE: The teacher made an exam.
Apuntes = NOTES: He lost his notes.
Presentarse a un exámen = TO SIT IN // TO SIT FOR: The pupil sat for an exam.
Deberes escolares = HOMEWORK: My son did his homework yesterday.
Tarea de casa = HOUSEWORK: My mother is making the housework.
Derecho(s) = RIGHT(S):
Deber(es) = DUTY/DUTIES: People
have rights and duties.
Colegio Privado = Public/Private/Independent School: I study in a public school.
Colegio Público = STATE SCHOOL: He studies in a state school.
Guardería = NURSERY SCHOOL: In this nursery school there are
few children.
Escuela Primaria = PRIMARY SCHOOL: The
primary school starts at six years old.
Escuela Secundaria = SECONDARY SCHOOL:
The secondary school starts at 11.
Selectividad=ADVANCED LEVEL EXAMINATION:
I'll take the advanced level exams.
Educación Superior = HIGHER EDUCATION The higher education starts at 14.
UNIVERSIDAD:
- Ingenierias =
Polytechnic: In Vigo there is a Polytechnic.
- Magisterio = College
of Education: In Vigo there is a College of Education.
- Demás Carreras =
University: In Vigo there is a University.
F.P. 2 Grado = College of Further Educaction In Vigo there is a
College of .....
1.- El
Artículo:
Es el que va colocado delante del
nombre para determinar o señalar su género y su
número.
|
|
Singular: el, la,
lo (masculino, femenino,
neutro) |
|
DETERMINADO |
|
|
|
Plural: los,
las (masculino y
femenino) |
|
|
Singular: un, una (masculino y
femenino) |
|
INDETERMINADO |
|
|
|
Plural: unos, unas (masculino y
femenino) |
ARTÍCULOS
CONTRACTOS: al (a + el);
del (de +
el)
n El
artículo concuerda con el nombre en género y número.
2.-
El Adjetivo
Es la parte de la oración que sirve
para expresar ciertas cualidades del sustantivo o para limitar su
sugnificación.
Ej.: Mesa grande (cualidad)
Esta mesa (se trata de una mesa en
concreto)
Por tanto el adjetivo se divide en
determinativo y calificativo.
DETERMINATIVO
Son los que
limitan la significación del sustantivo con indicación de lugar, posesión, número ...
etc.
Por tanto se dividen en: Demostrativos, Posesivos, Numerales
e Indefinidos
1)
Demostrativos: Acompañan
al nombre e indican su proximidad o lejanía con
relación al que
habla.
|
|
Masculino |
Femenino |
|
|
1ª
persona: este |
esta |
|
|
|
|
|
|
1ª
persona: estos |
estas |
2)
Posesivos: Acompañan
al nombre e indican que lo expresado por el sustantivo
pertenece a algun
dueño.
|
|
Masculino |
Femenino | |||
|
|
|
singular |
plural |
singular |
plural |
|
|
1ª
persona: |
mi |
mis |
mi |
mis |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
1ª
persona: |
nuestro |
nuestros |
nuestra |
nuestras |
3)
Numerales: Son los
que limitan la extensión del sustantivo indicando número u orden.
Ej.: veinte marcas de vehículos; segunda vez ...
etc.
CLASES:
a)
Cardinales: que
expresan número: uno, dos, tres ...
mil etc.
b)
Ordinales:
que indican
el lugar que un objeto ocupa en una serie ordenada de objetos.
Ej.: las primeras industrias regionales.
4)
Indefinidos: Son
aquellos que completan la significación del sustantivo, pero
de
un modo vago y
general.
Ej.: algunos empleados; ciertas piezas ....
etc.
CLASES:
|
Indefinidos
cuantitativos |
Indefinidos
distributivos |
|
Mucho bastante
otro alguno |
cada |
CALIFICATIVOS
Son los que
dicen como son las personas, animales o las cosas.
Ej.: carretero serio; mulas tordas; ruedas verdes
El género y
número del adjetivo siempre es el mismo que el de los sustantivos.
Ej.: caballo delantero; mulas tordas.
Según el
género los adjetivos pueden ser de dos terminaciones: buen-o/-a; o de una terminación: verd-e, az-ul,
valient-e.
Para la
formación del femenino o del plural, el adjetivo sigue generalmente las mismas
reglas que el sustantivo.
Apócope del
adjetivo: Hay
adjetivos calificativos que suprimen algunos de sus sonidos finales cuando van
delante del sustantivo.
Grados del
Adjetivo
Los grados
del adjetivo expresan las cualidades de un sustantivo poseidas en unas
proporciones distintas.
Ej.: el coche es rápido; el tren es más rápido; el avión es rapidísimo.
Grados de
significación del Adjetivo:
1)
Positivo: Indica
simplemente la cualidad: conquista prodigiosa.
2)
Comparativo: Establece
relación de la cualidad poseída entre dos sustantivos.
FORMAS:
de IGUALDAD: el coche es tan
rápido como el tren.
de INFERIORIDAD: el coche es menos
rápido que el tren.
de SUPERIORIDAD: el coche es más
rápido que
el tren.
3)
Superlativo: Expresa la
cualidad de un sustantivo poseída en el más alto grado:
Ej.: avión rapidísimo
CLASES:
n ABSOLUTO: Es el que
no compara la cualidad con ningun otro objeto
Ej.: avión muy
rápido o rapidísimo.
n RELATIVO: Es el que
expresa la cualidad de un sustantivo, poseída en el más alto grado, pero
comparándola con la de otros:
Ej.: Luis es el más alto de la clase.
Comparativos
y Superlativos Irregulares
Positivo Comparativo
Superlativo
bueno mejor
óptimo
malo peor
pésimo
grande mayor
máximo
pequeño menor
mínimo
alto superior
supremo
bajo inferior
ínfimo
interno interior
íntimo
3.-
El Pronombre
El pronombre
es la palabra que hace las veces del nombre, es decir, que se pone en
en su lugar para evitar su
repetición.
CLASES:
1)
PERSONALES
|
Singular |
Plural | |
|
|
Yo |
Nosotros,
Nosotras |
|
|
Tú |
Vosotros,
Vosotras |
|
|
él, ella, ello |
Ellos, Ellas |
2)
DEMOSTRATIVOS
|
|
Masculino |
Femenino |
Neutro |
|
|
Éste |
ésta |
Esto |
|
|
Éstos |
éstas |
Estos |
3) POSESIVOS
|
|
Masculino |
Femenino |
Neutro |
|
1ª
Persona |
Mio |
Mia |
(lo)
mio (lo)
nuestro |
|
2ª
Persona |
Tuyo |
Tuya |
(lo)
tuyo (lo)
vuestro |
|
3ª
Persona |
Suyo |
Suya |
(lo)
suyo |
4) REFLEXIVOS
|
Singular |
Plural | |
|
1ª Persona |
Yo
mismo |
Nosostros
mismos |
|
2ª Persona |
Tú
mismo |
Vosotros
mismos |
|
|
Él
mismo |
Ellos
mismos |
5) RECÍPROCOS
|
Plural | |
|
1ª
Persona |
(uno a otro:
dos) |
|
2ª
Persona |
(uno a otro:
dos) (unos a
otros: + de dos) |
|
3ª
Persona |
(uno a otro:
dos) (unos a
otros: + de dos) |
6) RELATIVOS
|
Masculino |
Singular: que, el
que, cual, el cual, quien, cuyo Plural: que, los
que, cuales, los cuales, quienes, cuyos |
|
Femenino |
Singular: que, la
que, cual, la cual, quien, cuya Plural: que, las
que, cuales, las cuales, quienes,
cuyas |
7) INTERROGATIVOS
|
Si los pronombres relativos se colocan al
comienzo de la frase, sirven entónces para interrogar o preguntar y por eso de denominan INTERROGATIVOS, éstos siempre llevan acento (´) y no tienen antecedente |
8) INDEFINIDOS
|
INDEFINIDOS: Son
aquellos que designan las personas, animales o cosas de
una Ej.: Algo tiene que comer. (ALGO indica un alimento pero no
concreta de Los más
usados son: Para PERSONAS: alguién, nadie,
cualquiera, uno. Para COSAS: algo,
nada OTROS: | |||
|
|
Variables |
Invariables |
|
|
|
alguno todo uno |
alguien |
|
CONJUGACIÓN
ESPAÑOLA
(Resumen)
|
Tiempos
Verbales |
HABER |
SER |
|
Presente Preterito
Imperfecto Preterito
Indefinido Futuro
Simple Condicional
Simple |
He había hube habré habría |
soy era fuí seré sería |
Las tres
conjugaciones: AM-AR,
TEM-ER, PART-IR
|
ConjugacionesàIndicativo |
1ª
-AR |
2ª
-ER |
3ª
-IR | |||
|
Presente |
-o |
-o |
-o | |||
|
Pretérito
Imperfecto |
-aba |
-ía |
-ía | |||
|
Pretérito
Indefinido |
-é |
-í |
-í | |||
|
Futuro
Simple |
-aré |
-eré |
-iré | |||
|
Condicional
Simple |
-aría |
-ería |
-iría | |||
|
ConjugacionesàSubjuntivo |
1ª
-AR |
2ª
-ER |
3ª
-IR | |||
|
Presente |
-e |
-a |
-a | |||
|
Pretérito
Imperfecto |
-ara/-ase |
-iera/-iese |
-iera/-iese | |||
|
Pretérito
Indefinido |
--------- |
----------- |
----------- | |||
|
Futuro
Simple |
-are |
-iere |
-iere | |||
|
Condicional
Simple |
--------- |
---------- |
----------- | |||
Los tiempos
compuestos o perfectos que corresponden a los tiempos simples
son:
|
Simples |
Compuestos |
|
Presente |
Pretérito
Perfecto |
|
Pretérito
Imperfecto |
Pretérito
Pluscuampecfecto |
|
Pretérito
Indefinido |
Pretérito
Anterior |
|
Futuro
Simple |
Futuro
Perfecto |
|
Condicional
Simple |
Condicional
Compuesto |
n Para formar
los tiempos compuestos: se hacen con
el correspondiente tiempo simple del
verbo HABER + el Participio perfecto o Pasado de verbo que se
conjuga:
Pretérito
Anterior de amar: Yo hube amado
n Para formar
la VOZ PASIVA: se hace con el tiempo
correspondiente del verbo SER + el
Participio Perfecto o Pasado del verbo que se
conjuga:
Pretérito Imperfecto Pasivo de amar: Yo era amado
Correspondencia
de tiempos españoles con los tiempos ingleses
|
Tiempos
simples |
Tiempos
simples |
Tiempos
compuestos |
Tiempos
compuestos |
|
Presente
Simple |
Simple
Present |
Pretérito
Perfecto |
Present
Perfect |
|
Pretérito
Imperfecto |
Simple
Past |
Pret.Pluscuamperfecto |
Past
Perfect |
|
Pretérito
Indefinito |
Simple
Past |
Pretérito
Anterior |
Past
Perfect |
|
Futuro
Simple |
Simple
Future |
Future
Perfecto |
Future
Perfect |
|
Condicional
Simple |
Simple
Conditional |
Cond.
Compuesto |
Perfect
Conditional |
1.-
TABLE OF TENSES - ACTIVE VOICE
|
|
Past |
Present |
Future |
Conditional | |||
|
Simple |
I
sang |
I
sing |
I
shall sing |
I
should sing | |||
|
Continuous |
I
was singing |
I
am singing |
I
shall be singing |
I
should be singing | |||
|
Perfect |
I
had sung |
I
have sung |
I
shall have sung |
I
should have sung | |||
|
Perfect Continuous |
I
had been singing |
I
have been Singing |
I
shall have been singin |
I
should have been singing | |||
Formas
no personales del verbo
|
Simple
Infinitive Continuous
Infinitive Perfect
Infinitive Present
Continuous Infintive Present
Participle Past
Participle Perfect
Participle |
to
sing to
be singing to
have sung to
have been singing singing sung having
sung |
2.-
TABLE OF TENSES - PASSIVE VOICE
|
|
Past |
Present |
Future |
Conditional | ||||
|
Simple |
I
was sung |
I
am sung |
I
shall be sung |
I
should be sung |
| |||
|
Continuous |
I
was being sung |
I
am being Sung |
I
shall be being sung |
I
should be being sung |
| |||
|
Perfect |
I
had been sung |
I
have been sung |
I
shall have been
sung |
I
should have been
sung |
| |||
|
Perfect Continuous |
I
had been being sung |
I
have been being sung |
I
shall have been being sung |
I
should have been being sung |
| |||
Formas
no personales del verbo
|
Simple
Infinitive Continuous
Infinitive Perfect
Infinitive Present
Continuous Infintive Present
Participle Past
Participle |
To
be sung To
be being sung To
have been sung To
have been being sung Being
sung Having
been sung |
HACER
COMPARACIONES
AS
... AS
// NOT SO ... AS:
Con as ... as se pueden compara cosas,
personas o acciones. Se usa tanto con adjetivos con con adverbios. Cuando la
comparación es negativa se puede cambiar por not so ... as, aunque en inglés hablado
se prefiere utilizar la primera fórmula:
The
living-room was almost as bad as the kitchen.
Painting is not so
difficult as papering.
Jumbo Jets don´t fly as
fast as Concordes.
AS
con MUCH/MANY se utiliza tanto con
nombres como con pronombres:
Nombre:
As much money; As many people; As many of the questions.
Pronombres: As much of it; As many
of them (the questions)
You have got
as much of
it (pintura) on the floor as you have on the wall.
He earns as much money
as his two brothers put together.
AS
... AS + CLAUSE:
El
segundo as va seguido de una oración
subordinada. Generalmente se emplea con adverbios, aunque puede emplearse
también con adjetivos:
He
writes Russian as well as he speaks it.
As fast I put it in, it
falls out again.
She is as tall as she is
thin.
AS
... AS
en símiles:
Los símiles son frases hechas, por
lo que hay que procurar no transliterar, puesto que difieren de uno a otros
idiomas y puede resultar negativo. Hay que expresar todo el conjunto. Si no se
sabe la comparación u ofrece alguna duda se recurre a la estructura que vale
para cualquier símil: as ... as anything:
As
heavy as lead
As drunk as a lord
As light as a feather
As white as a sheet
As strong as an ox
As soft as putty
As weak as a kitten
As sour as vinager
As cold as ice
As black as night
As quiet as a mouse
As clean as a new pin/whistle
As pretty as a picture
As deaf as a post/wall
As brave as a lion
As quick as a flash/lightening
As proud as a peacock As
ugly as sin
As pale as a ghost
As old as the hills
As mad as a March hare As
poor as church
As easy as ABC
As fresh as a daisy
As obstinate as a mule As
... as anything
IMPERSONAL:
YOU
You
equivale al impersonal español uno
Ej:
Uno sale de casa y luego no vuelve.
INFINITIVO
de PROPÓSITO o FINALIDAD
n Indica
la finalidad o propósito de la acción (Vease oraciones
finales):
The
students were waiting to hear what the Principal had to say.
El tipo de oraciones se suele
expresar por medio del infinitivo
con to o bien con in order o so as seguidos del infinitivo con to:
I
went ro London to see you.
That boy is working hard
in order to pass his exam.
In
order
y so as se emplean cuando la oración
final es negativa y cuando el complemento de la oración principal (si es una
persona) no es el sujeto de la subordinada:
I
have taken my umbrella so as not to get wet.
Yesterday John took his
brother to the cinema so as to feel less lonely.
Las
locuciones verbales WOULD RATHER/SOONER y HAD BETTER
Would
rather o
sooner: expresa preferencia entre dos cosas, por tanto
se traduce por preferiría esto a aquello (entre dos
acciones)
I´d
rather go than stay
1)
Si
es el mismo sujeto en las dos
acciones:
n Va
seguido por infinitivo de presente
sin to para acciones presentes o
futuras:
I´d
rather study English.
n Va
seguido por infinitivo de perfecto sin
to cuando se refiere a acciones pasadas:
I´d
rather have gone to the cinema yesterday
2)
Cuando
son sujetos diferentes en las
acciones:
n Va
seguido de simple past para
referirse a presente o futuro:
I´d
rather Tom went
n Va
seguido de past perfect al rferirse
a acciones pasadas:
I´d
rather Tom have gone yesterday.
Had
better
significa será/sería mejor para el
sujeto que sea:
n Va
seguido de infinitivo de presente sin
to para referirse a presente o futuro:
I´d
better go
n Va
seguido de infinitivo de perfecto sin to para
referirse al pasado:
I´d
better have gone
· Es
equivalente a la estructura It would be
better for me, you, him ... to ...
Nota:
Estas locuciones van siempre seguidas por INFINITIVO sin TO
NOMBRES
COMPUESTOS
|
B BLACK-OUT
= mareo, amnesia temporal BLAST-OFF
= lanzamiento BREAKDOWN
= interrupción, fracaso BREAK-OUT
= evasión, fuga BREAK-THROUGH
= descubrimiento BREAK-UP
= separación BUILD-UP
= concentración de fuerzas BY-PASS
= carretera de circunvalación C CALL-UP
= reclutamiento CARRY-ON
= embrollo, lío CARRYINGS-ON
= relaciones amorosas CAVE-IN
= socavón, derrumbamiento CHANGE-OVER
= cambio CHECK-UP
= chequeo CLEAN-OUT
= limpieza a fondo CLOSE-UP
= primer plano COMEBACK
= rehabilitación, acciones BONDS
= obligaciones COMEDOWN
= humillación, revés, bajón CUTBACK
= corte D DOWN-FALL
= caida, ruina DOWNPOUR
= chaparrón, aguacero D.
Day = día, momento crítico DRAWBACKS=inconveniente,
desventajas DRESSING-DOWN=reprimenda,
rapapolvo DROPPING-OFF
= bajada en Nº de ..... DROPPING-OUT
= darse de baja, retirarse F FALL-OUT
= polvillo radioactivo FLARE-UP
=arranque de cólera,riña, estalli- FLASH-BACK
= escena retrospectiva FRAME-UP
= conspiración G GET-AWAY
= escapada GET-UP
= atavíos GO-AHEAD
= luz verde, permiso o señal GO-BETWEEN
= intermediario GOINGS-ON
= actividades/conducta S SEND-OFF
= despedida (por todo lo alto) SETBACK
= revés, contratiempo SET-TO
= bronca, pelea (coloquial) SET-UP
= situación, tinglado SHAKE-UP
= reorganización, conmoción SHOWDOWN
= confrontación, conflicto SPLASHDOWN
= amerizaje STAND-BY
= persona de toda confianza, STAND-IN
= suplente (CINE = doble) SHOW-OFF
= presumido, ostentoso (pers.) T TAKEOVER
= toma de posesión, entrada TAKING-TO
= rapapolvos TIE-UP
= enlace, paralización (por huelga) TIP-OFF=advertencia
clandestina, SOPLO TURN-OUT=concurrencia,
Nº de asistentes TURN-OVER=volumen
de negocios,ventas |
H HANG-OVER
= resaca (bebida/guerra) HANGERS-ON
= parásitos, pegotes HIDE-OUT
= escondrijo, guarida HOLD-UP
= retraso, demora, ATRACO I INTAKE
= admisión, entrada (alumnos)
L LAY-BACK
= trampa habitual LAY-OFF
= paro involuntario LAY-OUT
= plan, trazado, distribución LET-DOWN
= decepción, chasco LEFT-OVERS
= sobras (comida etc.) LET-UP
= calma, respiro, tregua, RELAX LOOKER-ON
= espectador, mirón/mirona LOOK-OUT
= vigilancia, puesto de LOOK-OVER
= echar un vistazo LOW-DOWN
= informes confidenciales
M MIX-UP
= confusión, lRo
O OFF-SHOOT
= vástago (Bot), ramal OFF-CHANCE
= posibilidad remota OUT-BREAK
= brote, estallido, epidemia OUT-BURST
= explosión OUTCOME
= resultado OUT-CRY
=grito, protesta pública (ruidosa) OUTLAY
= desembolso, inversión OUT-LET
= punto de venta, salida OUTLOOK
= perspectiva, punto de vista, OUTPUT
= producción ONSET
= comienzo, ataque, arremetida P PAY-OFF
= momento decisivo, COLMO
R ROUND-UP
= redada, rodeo,
investigación a gran
escala RUNNER-UP
= subcampeón/subcampeona U UPBRINGING
= educación UPKEEP
= mantenimiento, conservaci\n UPSHOT
= resultado, consecuencia UPSTART
= arribista, insolente, presumido UP-SURGE
= acceso, aumento grande UPTAKE
= entendimiento, aprensión UPTURN
= mejora, aumento W WALK-OUT
= salida, huelga, retirada WASH-OUT
= fracaso total, calamidad WRITE-OFF
= perdida total, depreciación WRITE-UP
= reportaje/crónica muy |
Back to the Top